"As the Cherokee's nation first elected leader, Chief John Ross dedicated himself to preserving his nation.. Ross came to power at the height Cherokee modernization efforts. In the years right before and after his 1827 election, the Cherokee people employed commercial agricultural methods, developed a written language, published a newspaper, and wrote a constitution modeled after the American Constitution. When the Cherokee nation was threatened by the state of Georgia and President Jackson's 1830 Indian Removal Act, Ross embraced the American legal system, ultimately winning his case in the Supreme Court. Ross continued to fight removal even after Jackson ignored the Supreme Court decision and United States government officials accepted a fraudulent treaty signed by an unauthorized group of Cherokees. Faced with no other options, in 1838 he worked with the federal government to plan the forced relocation to Oklahoma. Ross witnessed the "Trail of Tears" and suffered the loss of his wife during the tragic move. He would go on to lead the Cherokee nation until his death in 1866.
Growing up in a mixed-blood home, Ross learned the customs of both the Cherokees and European-based cultures. He was educated at South West Point in Tennessee before working at his father's store. In his youth he proved his bravery, fighting the Creeks at one of General Jackson's first great victories, the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. Ross gained valuable experience as a Cherokee diplomat and a member of the Cherokee National Council in the years leading up to his election and the Indian removal crisis faced by his people.
Growing up in a mixed-blood home, Ross learned the customs of both the Cherokees and European-based cultures. He was educated at South West Point in Tennessee before working at his father's store. In his youth he proved his bravery, fighting the Creeks at one of General Jackson's first great victories, the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. Ross gained valuable experience as a Cherokee diplomat and a member of the Cherokee National Council in the years leading up to his election and the Indian removal crisis faced by his people.
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Henry Clay & the National Republican/Whig PartyThe great advantage of our system of government over all others, is, that we have a written constitution, defining its limits, and prescribing its authorities; and that, however, for a time, faction may convulse the nation, and passion and party prejudice sway its functionaries, the season of reflection will recur, when calmly retracing their deeds, all aberrations from fundamental principle will be corrected. |
For the first half of the nineteenth century, Henry Clay was a key figure in the political development of the United States. He earned a reputation as the "Great Compromiser" for his central roles in the Compromises of 1820, 1821, 1833, and 1850, in which he avoided a direct conflict on the issue of slavery and balanced the interests of free and slave states. As Speaker of the House, Clay played a pivotal role in the election of John Quincy Adams over the more popular Andrew Jackson in the 1824 presidential election. Clay's subsequent appointment to the Adam's cabinet was proof to Jackson that a "corrupt bargain" had been made. Jackson's bitterness toward Clay never diminished, and the two battled over numerous issues throughout Jackson's presidency.
Central to Clay's beliefs was a doctrine that came to be known as the American System. By raising tariffs on imported manufactured goods, the argument went, infant industries in the United States could be protected from foreign competition. This "protective" policy would become an important part of theNational Republican/Whig Party platform through the 1840's. Jackson's Democratic Party felt the policy aided moneyed corporations at the expense of workers and farmers and consistently opposed it.
Despite his great compromises, the power he exercised as Speaker of the House, and his position as primary leader of the early National Republican/Whig party, Henry Clay never gained the office he desired most - the presidency. He unsuccessfully ran for president in 1824, 1832, and 1844. Though some were interest in Clay in 1840 and 1848, he was not the Whig candidate in either of those elections (which were won by Whigs William H. Harrison and Zachary Taylor).
Central to Clay's beliefs was a doctrine that came to be known as the American System. By raising tariffs on imported manufactured goods, the argument went, infant industries in the United States could be protected from foreign competition. This "protective" policy would become an important part of theNational Republican/Whig Party platform through the 1840's. Jackson's Democratic Party felt the policy aided moneyed corporations at the expense of workers and farmers and consistently opposed it.
Despite his great compromises, the power he exercised as Speaker of the House, and his position as primary leader of the early National Republican/Whig party, Henry Clay never gained the office he desired most - the presidency. He unsuccessfully ran for president in 1824, 1832, and 1844. Though some were interest in Clay in 1840 and 1848, he was not the Whig candidate in either of those elections (which were won by Whigs William H. Harrison and Zachary Taylor).
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John C. Calhoun's long political career was predominantly devoted to three issues: war against Britain, defending slavery, and vigorously supporting state's rights. After breaking with President Andrew Jackson over the issue of nullification, Calhoun resigned the vice presidency to accept a seat in the U. S. Senate representing his home state of South Carolina. In reaction to the Tariff of 1828 (termed the "tariff of abominations" by many Southerners), Calhoun pushed South Carolina to the verge of secession in 1833, claiming that the state had the right to nullify any federal law they deemed unconstitutional. A compromise tariff bill authored by Henry Clay finally settled the conflict peacefully without Jackson or Calhoun losing political influence.
While serving in the Senate, Calhoun devoted much of his energy to protecting the institution of slavery. With his paternalistic perspective, Calhoun painted slavery as a "positive good" - going well beyond the "necessary evil" argument that was traditionally held by most southern politicians. Whereas the Nullification Crisis centered on a tariff, what really terrified the South was, arguably, the possibility that the federal government would one day outlaw slavery. Until his death in 1850, Calhoun hoped to expand slavery into the western territories and continued to fight against abolitionists, real and imagined, on all fronts.
While serving in the Senate, Calhoun devoted much of his energy to protecting the institution of slavery. With his paternalistic perspective, Calhoun painted slavery as a "positive good" - going well beyond the "necessary evil" argument that was traditionally held by most southern politicians. Whereas the Nullification Crisis centered on a tariff, what really terrified the South was, arguably, the possibility that the federal government would one day outlaw slavery. Until his death in 1850, Calhoun hoped to expand slavery into the western territories and continued to fight against abolitionists, real and imagined, on all fronts.
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Nicholas Biddle and the Bank of the United States"I AM NOT a Whig. I am not a Locofoco. I once belonged to a party now obsolete called the Democratic Party, a very good party until it was spoiled by Genl. Jackson. I am now only an American Citizen deeply concerned in the welfare & very anxious about the character of the country." |
As President of the Bank of the United States, Nicholas Biddle viciously sparred with President Jackson over the function and power of the Bank. Jackson saw banks and paper money as potential threats to the American people. Biddle, on the other hand, believed that a strong central bank could regulate the economy and increase American prosperity. The feud led Jackson to veto the Bank's bid for re-charter in 1832, stripping it of its power. His decision to withdraw the federal government's funds from it in 1833 eventually caused the Bank to collapse.
Before becoming President of the United States Bank, Nicholas Biddle had a long political resume. He had been secretary to the American foreign ministers to France and Great Britain, practiced law in Philadelphia, and served in the Pennsylvania House and Senate. In 1819, he was appointed as one of five government directors of the Bank of the United States, becoming its president in 1823. Biddle was an able president, and his fiscal policies strengthened the bank and the American economy after the Panic of 1819.
After Jackson won the dispute and the Bank of the United States collapsed, Biddle became president of the Bank of Pennsylvania. He retired in 1839.
Before becoming President of the United States Bank, Nicholas Biddle had a long political resume. He had been secretary to the American foreign ministers to France and Great Britain, practiced law in Philadelphia, and served in the Pennsylvania House and Senate. In 1819, he was appointed as one of five government directors of the Bank of the United States, becoming its president in 1823. Biddle was an able president, and his fiscal policies strengthened the bank and the American economy after the Panic of 1819.
After Jackson won the dispute and the Bank of the United States collapsed, Biddle became president of the Bank of Pennsylvania. He retired in 1839.
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By becoming President Jackson's most trusted advisor, Martin Van Buren earned the political reputation and capital that would help him become the eighth President of the United States. His steadfast support for Jackson during the Eaton Affair, and the ensuing fallout between Jackson and Vice President John C. Calhoun, dramatically increased his influence with the president.
Nicknamed the "Little Magician," Van Buren was a skilled political operative who had a hand in many of the political dealings of the time. As a young lawyer and state legislator in New York, Van Buren was intimately involved in developing the State's Democratic-Republican political machine, a far-reaching organization that worked to ensure party loyalists were elected to most state offices. This experience proved valuable to Van Buren as one of the early organizers of the national Democratic Party.
Martin Van Buren's victory in the presidential election of 1836 was due in large part to Jackson's support and continued influence. As a sign of allegiance, President Van Buren retained most of Jackson's cabinet and attempted to maintain many of his predecessor's policies. The conclusion of Jackson's Indian removal policies, the forced relocation of the Cherokees, Creeks, Seminoles, and Chickasaws, including the infamous "Trail of Tears," took place under his watch.
Largely blamed for the nation's economic difficulties during his term, which were attributed to fiscal policies first implemented under Jackson, Van Buren lost his reelection bid in 1840. He failed to win the Democratic Party's nomination in 1844 and ran unsuccessfully for president in 1848 as the candidate of the Free Soil Party. In addition to the presidency, Van Buren held several other coveted political offices including vice president, United States senator, governor of New York, and secretary of state.
Nicknamed the "Little Magician," Van Buren was a skilled political operative who had a hand in many of the political dealings of the time. As a young lawyer and state legislator in New York, Van Buren was intimately involved in developing the State's Democratic-Republican political machine, a far-reaching organization that worked to ensure party loyalists were elected to most state offices. This experience proved valuable to Van Buren as one of the early organizers of the national Democratic Party.
Martin Van Buren's victory in the presidential election of 1836 was due in large part to Jackson's support and continued influence. As a sign of allegiance, President Van Buren retained most of Jackson's cabinet and attempted to maintain many of his predecessor's policies. The conclusion of Jackson's Indian removal policies, the forced relocation of the Cherokees, Creeks, Seminoles, and Chickasaws, including the infamous "Trail of Tears," took place under his watch.
Largely blamed for the nation's economic difficulties during his term, which were attributed to fiscal policies first implemented under Jackson, Van Buren lost his reelection bid in 1840. He failed to win the Democratic Party's nomination in 1844 and ran unsuccessfully for president in 1848 as the candidate of the Free Soil Party. In addition to the presidency, Van Buren held several other coveted political offices including vice president, United States senator, governor of New York, and secretary of state.
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The White Southern FarmerI consider, then, the power to annul a law of the United States, assumed by one State, incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was founded, and destructive of the great object to which it was formed. |
“...it was a proud day for the people. General Jackson is their own President.” |
The groups of Americans who most clearly benefited from the presidency of Andrew Jackson were white workers and farmers. Though a member of a landed elite, Jackson had humble beginnings and worked hard for economic and political success. Along with his military feats, he earned a reputation as a man of the people who worked on their behalf. He oversaw a significant rise in voting rights for white males and worked against those who posed a real or perceived threat to the livelihood of the common American, most notably corporations, the United States Bank, and Native Americans.
Frederick Douglass was born a slave in Maryland in 1818. At the age of eight, young Frederick was sent to Baltimore to serve as a house servant. Although it was illegal for slaves to receive a formal education, his master's wife taught him basic reading and writing - skills he refined upon gaining his freedom. He was eventually sent to work as a field hand under a brutal slave master where he resolved to seek his freedom.
In 1838, Douglass dramatically escaped to the North and in 1841 joined the anti-slavery movement. Acclaimed abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison quickly recognized Douglass' potential and asked him to participate in the American Anti-Slavery Society. After his biography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, was published in 1845, Douglass gained international fame and influence. During the Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln sought his advice on matters regarding the emancipation of slaves.
After the Civil War, Douglass continued fighting for the civil rights of newly freed slaves in the South. He became the first African-American to be appointed to several offices by U.S. presidents, including his appointment as U.S. Minister to Haiti by President Benjamin Harrison.
In 1838, Douglass dramatically escaped to the North and in 1841 joined the anti-slavery movement. Acclaimed abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison quickly recognized Douglass' potential and asked him to participate in the American Anti-Slavery Society. After his biography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, was published in 1845, Douglass gained international fame and influence. During the Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln sought his advice on matters regarding the emancipation of slaves.
After the Civil War, Douglass continued fighting for the civil rights of newly freed slaves in the South. He became the first African-American to be appointed to several offices by U.S. presidents, including his appointment as U.S. Minister to Haiti by President Benjamin Harrison.
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